The theme for this volume was chosen because no previous book has discussed the quality attributes of meat, poultry and fish and the methods that can be utilized for their measurement. The topics are not only timely but of great importance. Chapter I provides an introduction to the topic and presents a brief overview of the subject to be discussed. The next two chapters review information on the importance of color and some color problems in muscle foods, and explains the basis of color vision and perception of color before describing the methods that may be used for its measure­ ment. The following chapter discusses water binding and juiciness and their importance, while Chapter 5 provides the first intensive modern review on measurement of juiciness that has been published (to the knowledge of the author and editors). Chapter 6 reviews the physiology and psychology of flavor and aroma, which serves as a background for further discussion on the flavor and aroma of foods. The next chapter discusses the chemistry of flavor and aroma in muscle foods, while measurement of flavor and aroma are covered in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 reviews the species-specific meat flavors and aromas. Chapter 10 reviews some flavor and aroma problems in muscle foods and their measurement.

1 Introduction to quality attributes and their measurement in meat, poultry and fish products.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Color.- 1.2.1 Importance.- 1.2.2 Variability and measurement.- 1.3 Juiciness and/or water-binding.- 1.3.1 Importance.- 1.3.2 Effects of variability and measurement.- 1.4 Flavor.- 1.4.1 Importance.- 1.4.2 Variability.- 1.4.3 Physiology and psychology of flavor/aroma.- 1.4.4 Specific flavors/odors.- 1.4.5 Flavor and aroma problems.- 1.5 Tenderness.- 1.5.1 Importance.- 1.5.2 Some factors influencing tenderness and its measurement.- 1.6 Microbial problems.- 1.6.1 Importance.- 1.6.2 Measurement.- 1.7 Additives and residues.- 1.7.1 Additives.- 1.7.2 Residues.- 1.8 Contributions of meat to human nutrition.- 1.8.1 Proteins and essential amino acids.- 1.8.2 Fats and essential fatty acids.- 1.8.3 Vitamins.- 1.8.4 Minerals.- 1.9 Summary.- References.- Appendix 1.1.- Appendix 1.2.- 2 Color - its basis and importance.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.1.1 Retail importance of meat color.- 2.2 Myoglobin and its derivatives.- 2.2.1 Myoglobin concentration in muscle.- 2.3 Factors affecting fresh meat color stability.- 2.3.1 Oxygen tension.- 2.3.2 Bacteria.- 2.3.3 Vacuum-packaging.- 2.3.4 Packaging with oxygen-permeable films.- 2.3.5 Modified-atmosphere packaging.- 2.3.6 Effects of pH.- 2.3.7 Temperature.- 2.4 Dark-cutting beef and related dark color problems.- 2.4.1 Characteristics of dark-cutting meat.- 2.4.2 Mechanism by which pH affects color.- 2.4.3 Changes occurring after death.- 2.4.4 Shelf-life of high pH meat.- 2.4.5 Vacuum packaging.- 2.4.6 Minimizing dark-cutters by management.- 2.4.7 Dark, coarse band in beef ribs.- 2.5 Pale, soft, exudative (PSE), porcine stress syndrome (PSS) and dark, firm, dry (DFD) pork'.- 2.5.1 Importance ofPSE, PSS and DFD pork.- 2.5.2 Genetic basis.- 2.5.3 Influence of environmental factors.- 2.6 Enzymatic reduction of metmyoglobin.- 2.6.1 Enzymes involved.- 2.6.2 Variation among muscles.- 2.6.3 Other factors influencing color stability.- 2.7 Non-enzymatic reductants and inhibitors of oxidation.- 2.7.1 Effects of antioxidants and reductants.- 2.8 Irradiation and other antimicrobial treatments.- 2.8.1 Irradiation of fresh and cooked meats.- 2.8.2 Sulfites and meat color.- 2.9 Effects of light, freezing, salt and lipid oxidation on meat color.- 2.10 Cooked meat color.- 2.10.1 Pink color in cooked, uncured meat.- 2.11 Cured meat color.- 2.11.1 Role of nitrite.- 2.11.2 Action of cysteine and ascorbate.- 2.11.3 The cured meat pigment.- 2.11.4 Fading of cured meat color.- 2.12 Summary.- References.- 3 Colour of meat.- 3.1 Introduction to vision and colour.- 3.2 Colour vision.- 3.2.1 Colour measurement.- 3.2.2 Uniform colour space.- 3.3 Terminology.- 3.4 Instrumentation.- 3.4.1 Trichromatic colorimeters.- 3.4.2 Spectrophotometers.- 3.4.3 Sources of variation among colorimeters and spectrophotometers.- 3.5 Absorption, scatter and pigmentation.- 3.5. 1 Reflectance.- 3.5.2 Light scatter.- 3.6 Meat colour.- 3.6.1 Measurement procedure.- 3.6.2 Reflectance spectral changes in meat.- 3.6.3 Colour changes in beef.- 3.6.4 Differences between CIELAB and Hunter scales.- 3.7 Summary.- References.- 4 Juiciness - its importance and some contributing factors.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Subjective assessment of juiciness.- 4.3 Relationship to objective measurements.- 4.3.1 Juiciness vs. water-holding.- 4.3.2 The state of water.- 4.3 .3 Heating method and end-point temperature vs. juiciness.- 4.3.4 The role of fat.- 4.3.5 Relationship between drip losses and juiciness.- 4.3.6 Relationship between press fluid and juiciness.- 4.4 Factors influencing the juiciness of intact meat.- 4.4.1 Interference from other experimental and textural factors.- 4.4.2 Heating/cooking methods.- 4.4.3 Animal characteristics.- 4.4.4 Factors related to rigor development.- 4.4.5 Restructured meat.- 4.4.6 Processed meats.- 4.4.7 Marinaded meat.- 4.5 Conclusions.- References.- 5 Measurement of water-holding capacity and juiciness.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Composition and structure of meat.- 5.3 State of water in meat.- 5.4 Definition of water-holding capacity.- 5.5 General methodology.- 5.5.1 Applying no force.- 5.5.2 Applying external mechanical force.- 5.5.3 Applying thermal force.- 5.5.4 Choosing a method for measuring WHC.- 5.6 Influence of different factors on WHC.- 5.6.1 Evaporation losses.- 5.6.2 Drip losses.- 5.6.3 Filter paper press method (FPPM).- 5.6.4 Centrifugation methods for uncooked meat.- 5.6.5 Capillary volumeter method.- 5.6.6 Imbibing method.- 5.6.7 Cooking losses.- 5.7 Description of methods and evaluation.- 5.7.1 Drip loss determination.- 5.7.2 Determination of water-holding capacity using the filter paper press method (FPPM).- 5.7.3 Determination of water-holding capacity by centrifugation.- 5.7.4 Capillary volumeter measurements.- 5.7.5 Imbibing method.- 5.7.6 Cooking loss measurement.- 5.8 Meat products.- 5.8.1 Manufacturing of cooked sausage.- 5.8.2 Water-holding capacity of unheated batters.- 5.8.3 Water-holding capacity of heated batters.- 5.8.4 Measurement of water-holding capacity in sausage batters.- 5.8.5 Evaluation of methods.- 5.9 Conclusions about water-holding capacity measurements.- 5.10 Measurement of juiciness.- 5.10.1 Problems in evaluating juiciness.- 5.10.2 Evaluation of methods.- 5.11 Summary.- References.- 6 The chemical senses.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Anatomy and physiology of the chemical senses: taste.- 6.2.1 Overview..- 6.2.2 Anatomy.- 6.2.3 Reception and transduction.- 6.3 Anatomy and physiology of the chemical senses: olfaction.- 6.3.1 Overview.- 6.3.2 Anatomy.- 6.3.3 Reception and transduction.- 6.4 Sensory responses to food: taste.- 6.4.1 Development of taste preference.- 6.4.2 Effects of aging.- 6.5 Sensory responses to food: olfaction.- 6.5.1 Development of olfactory preference.- 6.5.2 Effects of aging.- 6.6 Specific appetites.- 6.6.1 Salt.- 6.6.2 Amino acids and proteins.- 6.7 Chemosensory mixtures.- 6.8 Conclusions.- References.- Acknowledgements.- 7 Flavor and aroma chemistry.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Flavor precursors.- 7.3 The taste of meat.- 7.4 Meat aroma.- 7.4.1 Maillard reaction.- 7.4.2 Lipid reactions.- 7.4.3 Thiamin degradation.- 7.4.4 Role of nitrite in cured meat flavor.- 7.4.5 Volatiles and flavor.- 7.5 Summary.- References.- 8 Flavor and aroma - its measurement.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Difference tests.- 8.3 Descriptive flavor analysis.- 8.3.1 The flavor profile.- 8.3.2 Quantitative descriptive analysis.- 8.3.3 The spectrum method.- 8.4 Instrumental analysis.- 8.4.1 Extraction and concentration of flavor compounds.- 8.4.2 Selection of a concentration- extraction procedure.- 8.4.3 Gas chromatographic (GC) analysis.- …