This book is dedicated to Dr. Benjamin William Remondi for many reasons. The project of writing a Global Positioning System (GPS) book was con­ ceived in April 1988 at a GPS meeting in Darmstadt. Dr. Remondi discussed with me the need for an additional GPS textbook and suggested a possible joint effort. In 1989, I was willing to commit myself to such a project. Un­ fortunately, the timing was less than ideal for Dr. Remondi. Therefore, I decided to start the project with other coauthors. Dr. Remondi agreed and indicated his willingness to be a reviewer. I selected Dr. Herbert Lichtenegger, my colleague from the University of Technology at Graz, Austria, and Dr. James Collins from the United States. In my opinion, the knowledge of the three authors should cover the wide spectrum of GPS. Dr. Lichtenegger is a geodesist with broad experience in both theory and practice. He has specialized his research to geodetic astron­ omy including orbital theory and geodynamical phenomena. Since 1986, Dr. Lichtenegger's main interest is dedicated to GPS. Dr. Collins retired from the U.S. National Geodetic Survey in 1980, where he was the Deputy Director. For the past ten years, he has been deeply involved in using GPS technology with an emphasis on surveying. Dr. Collins was the founder and president of Geo/Hydro Inc. My own background is theoretically oriented. My first chief, Prof. Dr. Peter Meissl, was an excellent theoretician; and my former chief, Prof. DDDr. Helmut Moritz, fortunately, still is.

1. Introduction.- 1.1 The origins of surveying.- 1.2 Development of global surveying techniques.- 1.2.1 Optical global triangulation.- 1.2.2 Electromagnetic global trilateration.- 1.3 History of the Global Positioning System.- 1.3.1 Navigating with GPS.- 1.3.2 Surveying with GPS.- 2. Overview of GPS.- 2.1 Basic concept.- 2.2 Space segment.- 2.2.1 Constellation.- 2.2.2 Satellites.- 2.2.3 Denial of accuracy and access.- 2.3 Control segment.- 2.3.1 Master control station.- 2.3.2 Monitor stations.- 2.3.3 Ground control stations.- 2.4 User segment.- 2.4.1 User categories.- 2.4.2 Receiver types.- 3. Reference systems.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Coordinate systems.- 3.2.1 Definitions.- 3.2.2 Transformations.- 3.3 Time systems.- 3.3.1 Definitions.- 3.3.2 Conversions.- 3.3.3 Calendar.- 4. Satellite orbits.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Orbit description.- 4.2.1 Keplerian motion.- 4.2.2 Perturbed motion.- 4.2.3 Disturbing accelerations.- 4.3 Orbit determination.- 4.3.1 Keplerian orbit.- 4.3.2 Perturbed orbit.- 4.4 Orbit dissemination.- 4.4.1 Tracking networks.- 4.4.2 Ephemerides.- 5. Satellite signal.- 5.1 Signal structure.- 5.1.1 Physical fundamentals.- 5.1.2 Components of the signal.- 5.2 Signal processing.- 5.2.1 General remarks.- 5.2.2 Receiver.- 6. Observables.- 6.1 Data acquisition.- 6.1.1 Code pseudoranges.- 6.1.2 Phase pseudoranges.- 6.1.3 Doppler data.- 6.1.4 Biases and noise.- 6.2 Data combinations.- 6.2.1 Linear phase combinations.- 6.2.2 Phase and code pseudorange combinations.- 6.3 Atmospheric effects.- 6.3.1 Phase and group velocity.- 6.3.2 Ionospheric refraction.- 6.3.3 Tropospheric refraction.- 6.4 Relativistic effects.- 6.4.1 Special relativity.- 6.4.2 General relativity.- 6.4.3 Relevant relativistic effects for GPS.- 6.5 Multipath.- 6.6 Antenna phase center offset and variation.- 7. Surveying with GPS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Terminology definitions.- 7.1.2 Observation technique.- 7.1.3 Field equipment.- 7.2 Planning a GPS survey.- 7.2.1 General remarks.- 7.2.2 Presurvey planning.- 7.2.3 Field reconnaissance.- 7.2.4 Monumentation.- 7.2.5 Organizational design.- 7.3 Surveying procedure.- 7.3.1 Preobservation.- 7.3.2 Observation.- 7.3.3 Postobservation.- 7.3.4 Ties to control monuments.- 7.4 In situ data processing.- 7.4.1 Data transfer.- 7.4.2 Data processing.- 7.4.3 Trouble shooting and quality control.- 7.4.4 Datum transformations.- 7.4.5 Computation of plane coordinates.- 7.5 Survey report.- 8. Mathematical models for positioning.- 8.1 Point positioning.- 8.1.1 Point positioning with code ranges.- 8.1.2 Point positioning with carrier phases.- 8.1.3 Point positioning with Doppler data.- 8.2 Relative positioning.- 8.2.1 Phase differences.- 8.2.2 Correlations of the phase combinations.- 8.2.3 Static relative positioning.- 8.2.4 Kinematic relative positioning.- 8.2.5 Mixed-mode relative positioning.- 9. Data processing.- 9.1 Data preprocessing.- 9.1.1 Data handling.- 9.1.2 Cycle slip detection and repair.- 9.1.3 Ambiguity resolution.- 9.2 Adjustment, filtering, and smoothing.- 9.2.1 Least squares adjustment.- 9.2.2 Kalman filtering.- 9.2.3 Smoothing.- 9.3 Adjustment of mathematical GPS models.- 9.3.1 Linearization.- 9.3.2 Linear model for point positioning with code ranges.- 9.3.3 Linear model for point positioning with carrier phases.- 9.3.4 Linear model for relative positioning.- 9.4 Network adjustment.- 9.4.1 Single baseline solution.- 9.4.2 Multipoint solution.- 9.4.3 Single baseline versus multipoint solution.- 9.5 Dilution of Precision.- 10. Transformation of GPS results.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Coordinate transformations.- 10.2.1 Cartesian coordinates and ellipsoidal coordinates.- 10.2.2 Ellipsoidal coordinates and plane coordinates.- 10.2.3 Height transformation.- 10.3 Similarity transformations.- 10.3.1 Three-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.2 Two-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.3 One-dimensional transformation.- 10.4 Combining GPS and terrestrial data.- 10.4.1 Data transformation.- 10.4.2 Adjustment.- 10.5 Fiducial point concept.- 11. Software modules.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Planning.- 11.2.1 Satellite visibility.- 11.2.2 Satellite geometry.- 11.2.3 Simulations.- 11.2.4 Receiver preprogramming.- 11.3 Data transfer.- 11.3.1 Downloading data.- 11.3.2 Decoding data.- 11.3.3 Checking transferred data.- 11.3.4 File handling.- 11.3.5 Baseline definition.- 11.4 Data processing.- 11.4.1 Generating RINEX formatted data.- 11.4.2 Ephemerides.- 11.4.3 Code data processing.- 11.4.4 Phase data processing.- 11.4.5 Data analysis.- 11.4.6 Covariance matrices.- 11.4.7 Modeling the atmosphere.- 11.4.8 Parameter estimation.- 11.5 Quality control.- 11.5.1 Statistical data.- 11.5.2 Loop closures.- 11.5.3 Residuals.- 11.5.4 Repaired cycle slips.- 11.6 Network adjustment.- 11.6.1 Helmert transformation.- 11.6.2 Hybrid data combination.- 11.7 Data base management.- 11.7.1 Storage and retrieval of data.- 11.7.2 Archiving survey results.- 11.7.3 Interface to national control points.- 11.7.4 Interface to GIS software.- 11.8 Utilities.- 11.8.1 File editing.- 11.8.2 Time conversions.- 11.8.3 Optimization of survey design.- 11.8.4 Transformation of coordinates.- 11.8.5 Documentation of results.- 11.9 Flexibility.- 11.10 Checklist for software modules.- 12. Applications of GPS.- 12.1 General uses of GPS.- 12.1.1 Global uses.- 12.1.2 Regional uses.- 12.1.3 Local uses.- 12.2 Installation of control networks.- 12.2.1 Passive control networks.- 12.2.2 Active control networks.- 12.3 Interoperability of GPS.- 12.3.1 GPS and Inertial Navigation Systems.- 12.3.2 GPS and GLONASS.- 12.3.3 GPS and other sensors.- 12.3.4 GPS and terrestrial survey.- 13. Future of GPS.- 13.1 New application aspects.- 13.2 Impact of limited accuracy and access.- 13.2.1 Selective availability.- 13.2.2 Anti-spoofing.- 13.3 Improved constellation.- 13.3.1 Next generation satellites.- 13.3.2 GLONASS satellites.- 13.3.3 INMARSAT satellites.- 13.4 Hardware improvements.- 13.4.1 Receiver cost.- 13.4.2 Receiver capability.- 13.5 Software improvements.- 13.6 Conclusion.- References.