Pollinators play a vital role in ecosystem health and are
essential to ensuring food security. With declines in both managed
and wild pollinator populations in recent years, scientists and
regulators have sought answers to this problem and have explored
implementing steps to protect pollinator populations now and for
the future. Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators
focuses on the role pesticides play in impacting bee populations
and looks to develop a risk assessment process, along with the data
to inform that process, to better assess the potential risks that
can accompany the use of pesticide products.

Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators opens with two
chapters that provide a biological background of both Apis
and non-Apis species of pollinators. Chapters then present
an overview of the general regulatory risk assessment process and
decision-making processes. The book then discusses the core
elements of a risk assessment, including exposure estimation,
laboratory testing, and field testing. The book concludes
with chapters on statistical and modeling tools, and proposed
additional research that may be useful in developing the ability to
assess the impacts of pesticide use on pollinator populations.

Summarizing the current state of the science surrounding risk
assessment for Apis and non-Apis species,
Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators is a timely work
that will be of great use to the environmental science and
agricultural research communities.

* Assesses pesticide risk to native and managed pollinators

* Summarizes the state of the science in toxicity testing and
risk assessment

* Provides valuable biological overviews of both Apis and
non-Apis pollinators

* Develops a plausible overall risk assessment framework for
regulatory decision making

* Looks towards a globally harmonized approach for pollinator
toxicity and risk assessment

David Fischer is Director of Environmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment at Bayer CropScience.

Thomas Moriarty is a Team Leader in the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Pesticide Re-Evaluation Division.

Pollinators play a vital role in ecosystem health and are essential to ensuring food security. With declines in both managed and wild pollinator populations in recent years, scientists and regulators have sought answers to this problem and have explored implementing steps to protect pollinator populations now and for the future. Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators focuses on the role pesticides play in impacting bee populations and looks to develop a risk assessment process, along with the data to inform that process, to better assess the potential risks that can accompany the use of pesticide products.

Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators opens with two chapters that provide a biological background of both Apis and non-Apis species of pollinators. Chapters then present an overview of the general regulatory risk assessment process and decision-making processes. The book then discusses the core elements of a risk assessment, including exposure estimation, laboratory testing, and field testing. The book concludes with chapters on statistical and modeling tools, and proposed additional research that may be useful in developing the ability to assess the impacts of pesticide use on pollinator populations.

Summarizing the current state of the science surrounding risk assessment for Apis and non-Apis species, Pesticide Risk Assessment for Pollinators is a timely work that will be of great use to the environmental science and agricultural research communities.

• Assesses pesticide risk to native and managed pollinators
• Summarizes the state of the science in toxicity testing and risk assessment
• Provides valuable biological overviews of both Apis and non-Apis pollinators
• Develops a plausible overall risk assessment framework for regulatory decision making
• Looks towards a globally harmonized approach for pollinator toxicity and risk assessment

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xv

Acknowledgments xvii

About the Editors xix

Workshop Participants xxi

Pellston Workshop Series xxv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Workshop Balance and Composition 2

Chapter 2 Overview of the Honey Bee 3
J. Pettis

2.1 Overview of Honey Bee Biology 3

Chapter 3 Overview of Non-Apis Bees 5
M. Vaughan, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, and A. Dinter

3.1 Introduction 5

3.2 Non-Apis Bee Biology and Diversity 7

3.3 Opportunities for Non-Apis Bees to Inform Pollinator Risk Assessment 12

3.4 Conclusions 12

References 14

Chapter 4 Overview of Protection Goals for Pollinators 19
T. Moriarty, A. Alix, and M. Miles

4.1 Introduction 19

4.2 Elements and Proposed Protection Goals 20

4.3 Linking Protection Goals with Assessment Endpoints 21

4.4 Protection Goals and Monitoring 22

4.5 Conclusion 22

Reference 23

Chapter 5 Overview of the Pesticide Risk Assessment and the Regulatory Process 25
C. Lee-Steere and T. Steeger

5.1 Introduction 25

5.2 Current Approach for Assessing Effects of Pesticide Products to Pollinators 26

References 27

Chapter 6 Problem Formulation for an Assessment of Risk to Honey Bees from Applications of
Plant Protection Products to Agricultural Crops 29
D. Fischer, A. Alix, M. Coulson, P. Delorme, T. Moriarty, J. Pettis, T. Steeger, and J.D. Wisk

6.1 What Is Problem Formulation? 30

6.2 Case 1: Problem Formulation for a Systemic Chemical Applied to the Soil, or as a Seed-Dressing 35

6.3 Case 2: Problem Formulation for a Contact Chemical Applied as a Foliar Spray 39

References 44

Chapter 7 Assessing Exposure of Pesticides to Bees 45
J.D.Wisk, J. Pistorius, M. Beevers, R. Bireley, Z. Browning, M.P. Chauzat, A. Nikolakis, J. Overmyer, R. Rose, R. Sebastien, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, R.C.F. Nocelli, C. Scott-Dupree, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, A. Dinter, and M. Vaughan

7.1 Introduction 46

7.2 Potential Routes of Exposure for Non-ApisBees 49

7.3 Methods and Models for Estimating Exposure of Bees to Pesticides 54

7.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Pesticide Active Ingredients Which Affect Exposure 55

7.5 Information Needed to Develop Refined Predictive Exposure Models 56

7.6 Predicted Contact Exposure for Foliar-Applied Products 56

7.7 Predicted Dietary Exposure for Foliar-Applied Products 59

7.8 Predicted Exposure for Soil and Seed Treatment Systemic Compounds 61

7.9 Predicted Exposure for Tree-Injected Compounds 62

7.10 Measuring Pesticides in Matrices Relevant for Assessing Exposure to Bees 62

7.11 Higher Tier Studies to Assess Exposure of Pesticides to Bees 63

7.12 Health of Honey Bee Colonies Can Influence Exposure 65

7.13 Higher Tier Studies with Non-Apis Bee Species 65

7.14 Summary and Recommendations 68

References 70

Chapter 8 Assessing Effects Through Laboratory Toxicity Testing 75
J. Frazier, J. Pflugfleder, P. Aupinel, A. Decourtye, J. Ellis, C. Scott-Dupree, Z. Huang, H. Thompson, P. Bachman, A. Dinter, M. Vaughan, B.E. Vaissi`ere, G. Maynard, M. Kasina, E. Johansen, C. Brittain, M. Coulson, and R.C.F. Nocelli<…