Phytomass and Primary Production of the Various Vegetational Zones and of the Entire Biosphere The biosphere is that thin layer at the earth's surface in which living organisms exist and biological cycling takes place. It includes the upper horizons of the soil in which plants root, the atmosphere near the ground, (insofar as organisms penetrate this space), and all the surface waters. More than 99% of the earth's biomass is phytomass, to which we shall limit our discussion. Amounts of phytomass are distinctly related to vegeta­ tional zones. Because accurate determination of phytomass and primary production is difficult, only gross estimates have been available until recently. However, in 1970, Bazilevich et al. published (in Russian) more accurate calculations, based on the rapidly accumulating literature, for the various thermal zones and bioclimatic regions of the earth. These authors calculated mean phyto­ mass and mean annual primary production for the various regions as dry mass (in tons) per hectare. On the basis of measurements of the areas covered by the individual regions, excluding rivers, lakes, glaciers, and permanent snow, total phytomass and total annual primary production for the various regions were obtained (see table). The sum of these figures is the phytomass and annual production of the land surface of the earth. In addition, the table gives corresponding data for the waters of the earth. The values involved are potential i. e. , they are based on natural vegetation uninfluenced by man.

Introduction: The Classification of Ecological Systems.- Introduction: The Classification of Ecological Systems.- 1. The Aims of Ecology.- 2. Classification of the Geo-biosphere into Zonobiomes.- 3. Zonoecotones.- 4. Orobiomes.- 5. Pedobiomes.- 6. Biomes.- 7. The Nature and Structure of Ecosystems.- 8. Special Material Cycles in Terrestrial Ecosystems and the Role Played by Fire.- 9. Smaller Units of Ecological Systems: Biogeocenes and Synusiae.- 10. Diagrammatic Representation of the Hierarchy of Ecological Units.- General Section.- General Section.- 1. The Historical Factor. Floristic Realms.- 2. Climate and Its Representation (Climate Diagrams, Homoclimes, and Climate-Diagram Maps).- 3. Environment and Competition.- 4. Ecotypes and the Law of Change of Biotope and Relative Constancy of Habitat. Extrazonal Vegetation.- 5. Poikilohydric and Homeohydric Plants and Halophytes.- I Zonobiome of the Equatorial Diurnal Climate With Evergreen Tropical Rain Forest.- I Zonobiome of the Equatorial Diurnal Climate With Evergreen Tropical Rain Forest.- 1. Typical Climate.- 2. Soils and Pedobiomes.- 3. Vegetation.- 4. Anomalies in the Equatorial Zone.- 5. Orobiome I-Tropical Mountains With a Diurnal Climate.- 6. The Biogeocenes of Zonobiome I as Ecosystems.- Zonoecotone I/III-Semievergreen Forest.- II Zonobiome of the Tropical Summer-Rain Region With Deciduous Forests.- 1. General.- 2. Parkland.- 3. Savannas.- 4. The Llanos on the Orinoco, the Campos Cerrados, and the Palm Savannas.- 5. Tropical Hydrobiomes in Zonobiomes I and II.- 6. Mangroves as Halohelobiomes in Zonobiomes I and II.- 7. Shore Formations-Psammobiomes.- 8. Orobiome II-Tropical Mountains With an Annual Temperature Periodicity.- Zonoecotone II/III-Climatic Savannas.- III Zonobiome of the Subtropical Deserts.- 1. Climatic Subzonobiomes.- 2. The Soils and their Water Content.- 3. The Water Supply of Desert Plants.- 4. Ecological Types Among Desert Plants.- 5. Salt Soils-Halobiomes.- 6. The Salt Economy of Halophytes.- 7. Desert Vegetation of the Various Floristic Realms.- 8. Adaptations to Water Stress From the Cybernetic Point of View.- 9. The Productivity of Desert Vegetation.- 10. Orobiome III-Desert Mountains of the Subtropics.- 11. Biome of the Namib Fog Desert.- Zonoecotone III/IV-Semidesert.- IV Zonobiome of the Winter-Rain Region and the Zonoecotone Toward More Humid Zones.- 1. General.- 2. Subzonobiome of the Mediterranean Region.- 3. The Significance of Sclerophylly in Competition.- 4. Mediterranean Orobiome IV.- 5. Arid Variants of the Mediterranean Subzonobiome.- 6. Subzonobiome of the Californian Region and Neighboring Country.- 7. Subzonobiome of the Central Chilean Winter-Rain Region With Zonoecotones.- 8. Subzonobiome of the South African Capeland.- 9. Subzonobiome of Southwestern and South Australia With Winter Rain.- V Zonobiome of the Warm-Temperate Humid Climate Region.- 1. General.- 2. Humid Subzonobiomes on the East Coasts of the Continents.- 3. Biome of the Eucalyptus-Nothofagus Forests of Southeastern Australia and Tasmania.- 4. Warm-Temperate Biome of New Zealand.- 5. Connections Between Zonobiomes IV and V.- VI Zonobiome of the Temperate-Nemoral Climate.- 1. Leaf Shedding as an Adaptation to the Cold Winter.- 2. Distribution of Zonobiome VI.- 3. Atlantic Heath Regions.- 4. Deciduous Forests as Ecosystems (Biogeocenes).- 5. Ecophysiology of the Tree Stratum.- 6. Ecophysiology of the Herbaceous Layer (Synusiae).- 7. The Long Cycle (Consumers).- 8. Decomposers in Litter and Soil.- 9. The Effect of the Cold Winter Period on Plants of the Nemoral Zone.- 10. Orobiome VI-the Northern Alps.- Zonoecotone VI/VII-Forest-Steppe.- VII Zonobiome of the Arid-Temperate Climate.- 1. Climate.- 2. Soils of the East European Steppe Zone.- 3. Meadow-Steppes on Thick Chernozem and the Feather Grass Steppes.- 4. North American Prairie.- 5. Ecophysiology of the Steppe and Prairie Species.- 6. Asiatic Steppes.- 7. Animal Life of the Steppe.- 8. Grass Steppes of the Southern Hemisphere.- 9. Subzonoecotone of the Semidesert.- 10. Subzonobiome of the Middle Asiatic Deserts.- 11. Biome of the Karakum Desert.- 12. Orobiome VII(rIII) in Middle Asia.- 13. Subzonobiome of the Central Asiatic Deserts.- 14. Subzonobiome of the Cold High-Plateau Deserts of Tibet and Pamir.- Zonoecotone VI/VIII-Boreonemoral Zone.- VIII Zonobiome of the Cold-Temperate Boreal Climate.- 1. Climate and Coniferous Species of the Boreal Zone.- 2. Biogeocene Complexes of the European Boreal-Forest Zone.- 3. The Coniferous Forest as a Biogeocene.- 4. The Extreme Continental Larch Forests of Eastern Siberia.- 5. Orobiome VIII-Mountain Tundra.- 6. Mires of the Boreal Zone (Peinohelobiomes).- 7. The Ecology of Raised Bogs.- 8. The Western Siberian Lowlands-the Largest Bog Region of the Earth.- Zonoecotone VIII/IX-Forest Tundra.- IX Zonobiome of the Tundra Climate.- 1. Climate and Vegetation of the Tundra.- 2. Ecophysiological Investigations.- 3. Animal Life in the Arctic Tundra.- 4. The Cold Arctic Desert-Solifluction.- 5. Antarctic and Subantarctic Islands.- Summary.- Summary.- Phytomass and Primary Production of the Various Vegetational Zones and of the Entire Biosphere.- References.