Descriptive Meteorology, Second Edition describes the principal weather phenomena. This book consists of 10 chapters. Chapter I discusses the composition and vertical extent of the atmosphere. The adiabatic changes and vertical stability of the atmosphere are considered in Chapter II, while the heat balance of the atmosphere and observed temperature distribution are explained in Chapter III. The fourth chapter elaborates the condensation processes in the atmosphere and their respective forms. In Chapter V, the determination of wind velocity and vertical distribution of winds in the atmosphere are analyzed. The formation of characteristic air masses in the general circulation with the migratory types of cyclones, anticyclones, and tropical hurricanes and small-scale circulations which constitute most local weather phenomena are covered in Chapters VI to IX. The last chapter discusses the principles of weather forecasting and modification and present prospects for advances in meteorology.
This edition is a good reference for meteorologists and college students familiar with general physics and elementary calculus.
Inhalt
Preface
Introduction
I. General Outline
II. Definitions of the Meteorological Elements
A. Temperature
B. Atmospheric Pressure
C. Wind
D. Humidity
E. Condensation Forms
F. Sunshine
G. Visibility
H. Ceiling
I. Optical Phenomena
J. Electrical Phenomena
Chapter I. The Composition and the Vertical Extent of the Atmosphere
I. The Composition of the Lower Atmosphere
II. The Composition of the Upper Atmosphere
III. Hydrostatic Equilibrium
IV. The Equation of State and the Hypsometric Formula
V. Practical Applications of the Hypsometric Formula
A. The Determination of the Total Pressure and of the Composition of the Upper Atmosphere at Great Heights
B. The Reduction of Atmospheric Pressure to Sea Level
C. The Measurement of Elevation-Altimetry
Problems: I. Hypsometry
II. Altimetry
Chapter II. Adiabetic Processes and the Vertical Stability of the Atmosphere
I. Introductory Remarks
II. The Adiabatic Relationship Between Temperature and Pressure in Dry Air
III. The Dry Adiabatic Rate of Change of Temperature with Elevation
IV. The Effect of Water Vapor on the Dry Adiabatic Relationship
A. Unsaturated Conditions
B. Saturated Conditions
V. The Dependence of the Vertical Stability of the Atmosphere on the Temperature Lapse Rate
A. Lapse Rate Definitions
B. Thermodynamic Significance of the Lapse Rate
C. Stable Equilibrium
D. Conditionally Unstable (Also Called Conditionally Stable) Equilibrium
E. Neutral Equilibrium
F. Unstable Equilibrium
G. Auto-Convective Instability (No Equilibrium)
VI. The Adiabatic and Pseudoadiabatic Diagrams
A. The Representation of Atmospheric Conditions on the Adiabatic Diagram
B. Uses of the Dry Adiabatic Diagram
C. The Representation of Atmospheric Conditions on the Pseudoadiabatic Diagram
D. Uses of the Pseudoadiabatic Diagram
Problems: The Adiabatic Diagram
Chapter III. The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere and the Explanation of the Observed Temperature Distribution
I. Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere
A. The Transfer of Heat by Radiational Processes
B. The Transfer of Heat and Other Elements by Molecular and by Turbulent Conduction
C. The Transfer of Latent Heat in the Form of Water Vapor
II. The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere
A. The Nature of the Heat Balance
B. The Determination of the Solar Constant
C. The Disposition of Insolational Energy
D. The Further Disposition of the Effective Insolational Energy
E. The Latitudinal Distribution of Heating and Cooling
III. The Distribution of Temperature in the Earth's Atmosphere
A. Temperature Distribution at the Ground
B. Distribution of Temperature in the Upper Atmosphere
Problems: Radiation
Chapter IV. Evaporation and Condensation in the Atmosphere
I. Evaporation in the Atmosphere
A. Rate of Evaporation into Still Air
B. The Effect of Wind on the Rate of Evaporation
II. Condensation in the Atmosphere
A. The Physical Basis of Atmospheric Condensation
B. The Meteorological Basis of Atmospheric Condensation
III. The Condensation Forms
A. Hydrometeors of the Stratiform Type
B. Hydometeors of the Limited Convective Type
C. Hydrometeors of the Convective Type (Unlimited)
Problems: Evaporation and Condensation
Chapter V. Wind Velocity in the Atmosphere
I. The Pressure Gradient Force
II. The Horizontal Deflecting Force due to the Earth's Rotation
III. The Frictional Force
IV. The Geostrophic Wind Velocity
V. Nongeostrophic Winds
A. The Relationship Between the Geostrophic Deviation and the Acceleration of the Air Particle
B. The Gradient Wind
C. Other Nongeostrophic Winds
VI. The Variation of Geostrophic Wind with Altitude
VII. The Effects of Friction
A. The Effect of Surface Friction on the Wind Velocity at the Ground
B. The Effect of Turbulent Viscosity on the Vertical Distribution of Wind Velocity Above the Ground
C. Characteristic Variations of Wind Speed, Temperature and Cloudiness in the Friction Layer
VIII. The Maintenance of the Kinetic Energy of Air Motion
IX. The Vorticity of Air Motion
Problems: Wind Velocity
Chapter VI. The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
I. Introductory Remarks
II. The Physical Basis of the General Circulation
III. The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the General Circulation
A. The Inadequacy of the Simple Thermally Direct Circulation
B. The Zonal Component of the General Circulation
IV. Observations of the Zonal Component of the General Circulation
V. The Meridional Component of the General Circulation
A. The Cellular Character of the General Circulation
B. The Seasonal Meridional Cells (Centers of Action)
C. The Migratory Meridional Cells (Migratory Highs and Lows)
VI. Irregular Changes of the General Circulation on the Northern Hemisphere During the Colder Half of the Year
A. Characteristics of the Extreme High-Latitude Zonal Circulation
B. Characteristics of the Extreme Low-Index Cellular Circulation
C. Characteristics of the Low-Latitude Zonal Circulation
D. Cycles of the Circulation Patterns
Chapter VII. The Secondary Circulations of the Thermal Type
I. Classification of the Secondary Circulations
II. Thermal Secondary Circulations which are Formed by Local Heating or Cooling at the Ground-Monsoon Circulations
A. Principles of Formation
B. The Monsoon Circulation Over North America
C. The Monsoon Circulation Over Asia
III. Thermal Secondary Circulations which are Produced by Local Thermal Influences at Upper Levels in the Atmosphere-Tropical Hurricanes
A. Principles of Formation
B. The Early Formative Stage of the Tropical Hurricane
C. The Stage of Rapid Intensification of the Hurricane Vortex
D. The Mature Stage of the Tropical Hurricane
E. Long-Term Fluctuations of Hurricane Frequency
Chapter VIII. The Secondary Circulations of the Dynamic Type
I. Introductory Remarks
II. Definition and Classification of Air Masses
A. Polar Versus Tropical …