Introduction to Carbon Science deals with various aspects of carbon science, from polymer science and prosthetics to crystallography, carbonization, spectroscopy, and surface science. Topics covered include the mechanisms of formation of isotropic and anisotropic carbons, physical properties of pitch relevant to the fabrication of carbon materials; kinetics and catalysis of carbon gasification; and porosity in carbons and graphites. Carbon fibers, cokes and composites, and coal to coke transformations are also discussed.
This book is comprised of nine chapters and begins with an overview of the basic structural features of carbon materials, along with definitions of the various carbon forms encountered in carbon science. The principal techniques for studying the structure of solid carbons are also considered. The reader is then introduced to the mechanisms underlying the formation of isotropic and anisotropic carbons; the physicochemical changes that take place when pitch is pyrolyzed to carbon; and kinetics and catalysis of carbon gasification reactions. The following chapters explore various types of porosity in carbons and graphites; manufacture, properties, structure, and applications of carbon fibers; and mechanical properties of cokes and composites. This text concludes by describing the conversion of coal to coke.
This monograph will be of interest to carbon scientists, technologists, and engineers, as well as those entering the field of carbon science for the first time.
Inhalt
Foreword
Acknowledgments
An Introduction to Authors
Chapter 1 Structure in Carbons and Carbon Forms
Summary
1 Introduction - Setting the Scene
1.1 The Element Carbon
1.2 Bonding in Carbon Materials
1.3 Diamond and Graphite - Perfect Structure
2 Order/Disorder
2.1 More-ordered Structures
2.2 Less-ordered Structures
2.3 Range of Order
3 Carbon Forms
3.1 Graphitic Carbons (Natural and Synthetic Graphites)
3.2 Non-graphitic Carbons and Graphitization
3.3 Graphitizable and Non-graphitizable Carbons
3.4 Pitches
3.5 Cokes
3.6 Coals
3.7 Carbon Fibers
3.8 Other Carbon Materials
4 Composites
4.1 Graphitic Composites
4.2 Carbon Electrodes
4.3 Carbon/Carbon Composites
5 Methods of Studying Carbon Structure
5.1 Optical Microscopy
5.2 Electron Microscopy (SEM and TEM)
5.3 X-ray Diffraction
5.4 Raman Spectroscopy
5.5 Surface Techniques
6 Factors in Carbon Structures
7 Conclusions
7.1 The Diversity of Carbon
References
Chapter 2 Mechanisms of Formation of Isotropic and Anisotropic Carbons
Summary
1 Introduction
2 Isotropic Carbon
3 Graphitizable Carbon - The Problem
3.1 Background
3.2 Mesophase: Early Recognition
3.3 Nematic Liquid Crystals
3.4 Structure in Liquid Crystals
3.5 Nucleation of Mesophase
3.6 Structure within Mesophase
4 Chemistry and Viscosity of Pyrolysis Systems
4.1 Growth and Properties of Mesophase: Summary
4.2 Aspects of Mesophase Chemistry
4.3 Mesophase Growth and Coalescence
4.4 Carbons/Cokes from Mesophase from Pitch
5 Mesophase from Coal
5.1 Metallurgical Coke
5.2 Coal Chemistry
5.3 Mesophase Formation during Coal Pyrolysis
References
Chapter 3 Physical Properties of Pitch Relevant to the Fabrication of Carbon Materials
Summary
1 Introduction
2 Origins and Composition of Pitch
2.1 Coal-tar Pitch
2.2 Petroleum Pitch
2.3 Solubility as a Characterization Technique
2.4 Chemical Characteristics
2.5 Mesogenic Character of Pitch
3 Structure of Pitch
3.1 Pitch as a Glassy Solid
3.2 Pitch as a Colloidal System
3.3 Paniculate Inclusions
4 Rheological Properties of Pitch
4.1 Newtonian and non-Newtonian Flow
4.2 Effect of Temperature on the Viscosity Coefficient
4.3 Measurement of the Glass Transition Temperature
4.4 Factors Determining the Glass Transition Temperature and other Reference Temperatures
4.5 Effect of Particulate Matter on Rheology
4.6 Mesophase Rheology
5 Pyrolysis of Pitch
5.1 Transformation Diagrams
5.2 Uses of the Transformation Diagram
5.3 Experimental Diagram
6 Pitch as a Binder and Matrix Material in Engineering Materials
6.1 Effect on Porosity
6.2 Surface Activity of Pitch
7 Electrical Conductivity
References
Chapter 4 Kinetics and Catalysis of Carbon Gasification
Summary
1 Introduction
2 The Nature of Carbon Surfaces
3 Reactivity of Carbon
3.1 Selective Gasification
4 Reaction Kinetics and Mechanisms
4.1 Chemical and Diffusion Control of Rate
4.2 Reaction Rates
4.3 Chemisorption and Desorption
4.4 Importance of Active Surface Area (ASA) to Reactivity
4.5 Concept of Reactivity
5 The Carbon-Molecular Oxygen Reaction
6 The Carbon-Carbon Dioxide Reaction
7 The Carbon-Steam Reaction
8 The Carbon-Oxides of Nitrogen Reaction
9 The Carbon-Hydrogen Reaction
10 Comparison of Carbon Gasification Reactions
11 Catalysis of Oxidation Reactions
11.1 Effects of Catalysts on Reaction Kinetics
11.2 Mechanisms of Catalysis
11.3 Understanding of Catalysis by Oxygen-transfer Reactions
11.4 Topography of Catalytic Gasification
12 Inhibition of the Gas-Carbon Reaction
References
Chapter 5 Porosity in Carbons and Graphites
Summary
1 Introduction
1.1 Classifications of Porosity
1.2 Some Examples of Porosity in Carbons and Graphites
2 Effects of Porosity on Properties of Carbons
3 Densities of Carbons
4 Surface Areas from Gas Adsorption
4.1 Experimental Methods
4.2 The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Theory
4.3 Fractal Surfaces of Carbons
5 Surface Areas from Small Angle X-ray Scattering
5.1 The Debye Equation
5.2 The Porod Law
5.3 The Guinier Equation
6 Microporous Carbons
6.1 Adsorption in Microporous Carbons
6.2 Calculations of Adsorption Potentials
6.3 Application of the BET Equation to Microporous Carbons
6.4 The Dubinin-Radushkevich (DR) Equation
6.5 Estimations of the Dimensions of Micropores
7 Mesoporous Carbons
7.1 The Kelvin Equation
7.2 Limitations of the Kelvin Equation
8 Macroporous Carbons
8.1 Mercury Porosimetry
8.2 Fluid Transport in Pores
8.3 Image Analysis
References
Chapter 6 Carbon Fibers: Manufacture, Properties, Structure and Applications
Summary
1 Introduction
1.1 History
1.2 General Properties
2 Preparation
2.1 Carbon Fibers from PAN
2.2 Carbon Fibers from Mesophase Pitch
3 Tensile Properties
3.1 Tensile Modulus
3.2 Tensile Strength
3.3 Practical Properties of Carbon Fibers
4 Structure
4.1 Wide-angle X-ray Diffraction
4.2 Small-angle X-ray Diffraction
4.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy
4.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy
4.5 Micro-structure
5 Fracture Mechanisms
5.1 Tensile Failure
5.2 Flexural Failure
5.3 Compressive Strength
6 Applications
6.1 Composite Properties
6.2 Aerospace …