This book describes various aspects of nanoscience and nanotechnology. It begins with an introduction to nanoscience and nanotechnology and includes a historical prospective, nanotechnology working in nature, man -made nanomaterial and impact of nanotechnology illustrated with examples.

It goes on to describes general synthetic approaches and strategies and also deals with the characterization of nanomaterial using modern tools and techniques to give basic understanding to those interested in learning this emerging area.

It then deals with different kinds of nanomaterial such as inorganics, carbon based-, nanocomposites and self-assembled/supramolecular nano structures in terms of their varieties, synthesis, properties etc. In addition, it contains chapters devoted to unique properties with mathematical treatment wherever applicable and the novel applications dealing with information technology, pollution control (environment, water), energy, nanomedicine, healthcare, consumer goods etc.

Narendra Kumar, Ph.D., is Former Director, DRDO, of MoD, India; carried out pioneering research in the development of advanced materials including nanomaterials and products based on them for various defense applications; and has over 100 research papers, 12 patents, and a book, Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials in the Treatment of Life-Threatening Diseases, to his credit. He is recipient of several national awards including Best Scientist DRDO Award and MRSI- Annual Award, 2010. Dr. Kumar is associated with American Chemical Society and Materials Research Society of India.

Sunita Kumbhat, Ph.D., is Professor of Chemistry at J. N. V. University, Jodhpur, India, teaching graduate and postgraduate courses on Analytical Chemistry; research fields include electrochemistry, sensor/biosensor, SPR technology, and nanomaterials. She has been Commonwealth Academic Staff Fellow 199495, Oxford University; UGC-National Associate 199597, BARC, Mumbai; and INSA-JSPS Fellow 2005, Kyushu University, Japan. Dr. Kumbhat is associated with International Society Electrochemistry, Bioelectrochemical Society, Chemical Research Society of India, and National Assessment and Accreditation Council, India.

Preface xiii

Acknowledgments xv

About the Authors xvii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Definitions of Nanoscience and Nanotechnologies 1

1.2 Uniqueness of the Nanoscale 3

1.3 Nanoscience in Nature 4

1.3.1 Naturally Occurring Nanomaterials 7

1.3.2 Nanoscience in Action in Biological World 8

1.4 Historical Perspective 10

1.5 Nanomaterials 13

1.5.1 Nanoparticles 16

1.5.2 Nanowires and Nanotubes 17

1.5.3 Nanolayers/Nanocoatings 17

1.5.4 Nanoporous Materials 17

1.6 Strategies for Synthesis of Nanomaterials 18

1.7 Properties of Nanomaterials 18

1.8 Significance of Nanoscience 19

1.9 Commercial Applications 20

1.9.1 Food Industry 22

1.9.2 Cosmetics 22

1.9.3 Textile 22

1.9.4 Medicine 22

1.9.5 Electrical and Electronic Goods 23

1.10 Potential Health Hazards and Environmental Risks 24

1.11 Futuristic Outlook 25

Review Questions 26

References 27

2 Nanomaterials: General Synthetic Approaches 29

2.1 Introduction 29

2.2 Top-Down Approach 30

2.2.1 Mechanical Milling 31

2.2.2 Mechanochemical Processing (MCP) 32

2.2.3 Electro-Explosion 33

2.2.4 Sputtering 34

2.2.5 Etching 34

2.2.6 Laser Ablation 36

2.2.7 Lithography 37

2.2.8 Aerosol-Based Techniques 43

2.2.9 Electrospinning 47

2.3 Bottom-Up Approaches 49

2.3.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition 49

2.3.2 Chemical Vapor Condensation (CVC) 54

2.3.3 Plasma Arcing 55

2.3.4 Wet Chemical Methods 55

2.3.5 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal 60

2.3.6 Reverse Micelle Method 60

2.3.7 Sol-Gel Method 61

2.3.8 Sonochemical Method 64

2.3.9 Biomimetic Approaches 66

2.3.10 Molecular Self-Assembly 70

2.3.11 Langmuir-Blodgett (LB) Film Formation 71

2.3.12 Stabilization and Functionalization of Nanoparticles 72

Review Questions 73

References 74

3 Characterization Tools for Nanomaterials 77

3.1 Introduction 77

3.2 Imaging Through Electron Microscopy 79

3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 85

3.2.2 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) 91

3.3 Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM) 97

3.3.1 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) 97

3.3.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 102

3.4 Characterization Through Spectroscopy 107

3.4.1 UV-Visible Plasmon Absorption and Emission 108

3.4.2 Vibrational Spectroscopies: FTIR and Raman Spectroscopy 109

3.4.3 Raman Spectroscopy Based Imaging 116

3.4.4 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 119

3.4.5 Auger Electron Spectroscopy 126

3.4.6 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 130

3.5 Scattering Techniques 133

3.5.1 X-Ray Diffraction Methods 134

3.5.2 Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) 140

3.5.3 Zeta Potential Analysis 142

Review Questions 145

References 146

4 Nanomaterials 149

4.1 Introduction 149

4.2 Inorganic Nanomaterials 150

4.2.1 Metals and Alloys 150

4.2.2 Metal Oxides of Transition and Non-transition Elements 156

4.2.3 Non-oxide Inorganic Nanomaterials 161

4.3 Organic Nanomaterials 161

4.3.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles 161

4.3.2 Polymeric Nanofilms 162

4.3.3 Nanocellulose 162

4.3.4 Biodegradable Polymer Nanoparticles 165

4.3.5 Dendrimers 165

4.4 Biological Nanomaterials 166

4.4.1 Categories 167

4.4.2 Potential Applications 169

4.5 Nanoporous Materials 170

4.6 Quantum Dots 173

4.7 Nanoclusters 175

4.8 Nanomaterials in Different Configurations 178

4.8.1 Nanofibers 179

4.8.2 Nanowires 179

4.8.3 Nanotubes 180

4.8.4 Nanobelts 183

4.8.5 Nanorods 184

Review Questions 185

References 186

5 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 189

5.1 General Introduction 189

5.1.1 Carbon Nanomaterials: Synthetic Carbon Allotropes (SCAs) 190

5.2 Fullerene 192

5.2.1 Properties of Fullerene 193

5.2.2 Application Potentials of Fullerene 195

5.3 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 196

5.3.1 Classification of CNTs 196

5.3.2 Synthesis of CNTs 198

5.3.3 Functionalization of CNTs 203

5.3.4 Purification of CNTs 205

5.3.5 Special Properties of Carbon Nanotubes 207

5.3.6 Applications 208

5.4 Graphene 208

5.4.1 Electronic Structure of Graphene 210

5.4.2 Unique Properties of Graphene 211

5.4.3 Synthesis 212

5.4.4 Characterization of Graphene 219

5.4.5 Applications 221

5.5 Carbon Nano-Onions 222

5.6 Carbon Nanofibers 224

5.7 Carbon Black 225

5.7.1 Crystallinity 227

5.7.2 Homogeneity and Uniformity 227

5.8 Nanodiamond 227

5.8.1 Synthesis of Nanodiamond 228

5.8.2 Properties 230

5.8.3 Applications 232

Review Questions 233

References 234

6 Self-Assembled and Supramolecular Nanomaterials 237

6.1 Introduction: Self-Assembly 237

6.1.1 Supramolecular Chemistry 238

6.2 Historical Perspective of Supramolecular and Self-Assembled Structures 239

6.3 Fundamental Aspects of Supramolecular Chemistry 240

6.3.1 Molecular Self-Assembly 241

6.3.2 Molecular Recognition and Complexation 242

6.3.3 Mechanically Interlocked Molecular Architectures 242

6.3.4 Supramolecular Organic Frameworks (SOFs) 242

6.3.5 Biomimetic 243