The comprehensive resource on reactive power compensation,
presenting the design, application and operation of reactive power
equipment and installations
The area of reactive power compensation is gaining increasing
importance worldwide. If suitably designed, it is capable of
improving voltage quality significantly, meaning that losses in
equipment and power systems are reduced, the permissible loading of
equipment can be increased, and the over-all stability of system
operation improved. Ultimately, energy use and CO2
emisson are reduced.
This unique guide discusses the effects of reactive power on
generation, transmission and distribution, and looks at the
compensation of existing installations in detail. It outlines
methods for determination of reactive power and answers the
questions that arise when controlling it, for example, at parallel
operation with generators. There is also a chapter devoted to
installation, maintenance and disturbances.
Key features include:
* A concise overview as well as deep specific knowledge on the
segment power factor regulation and network quality
* Theory of reactive power compensation coupled with typical
application examples such as car manufacturing, metal rolling and
chemical works
* Chapter summaries with charts explaining how to put the theory
into practice
* Coverage on the cost-saving aspects of this technology,
including the efficient use of energy and the reduction of
CO2
A practical guide for electrical engineers and technicians in
utilities, this is also essential reading for maintenance
engineers, designers, electrical contractors, manufacturing
companies, and researchers, also those in industry and planning
agencies. Insightful and clear, the book will also appeal to senior
undergraduate and graduate electrical engineering students and
professors.
Autorentext
Wolfgang Hofmann, Reactive Power Engineering, Munich, Germany
Jürgen Schlabbach, University of Applied Sciences, Bielefeld, Germany
Wolfgang Just, Engineering Consultant, Dorsten, Germany
Zusammenfassung
The comprehensive resource on reactive power compensation, presenting the design, application and operation of reactive power equipment and installations
The area of reactive power compensation is gaining increasing importance worldwide. If suitably designed, it is capable of improving voltage quality significantly, meaning that losses in equipment and power systems are reduced, the permissible loading of equipment can be increased, and the over-all stability of system operation improved. Ultimately, energy use and CO2 emisson are reduced.
This unique guide discusses the effects of reactive power on generation, transmission and distribution, and looks at the compensation of existing installations in detail. It outlines methods for determination of reactive power and answers the questions that arise when controlling it, for example, at parallel operation with generators. There is also a chapter devoted to installation, maintenance and disturbances.
Key features include:
- A concise overview as well as deep specific knowledge on the segment power factor regulation and network quality
- Theory of reactive power compensation coupled with typical application examples such as car manufacturing, metal rolling and chemical works
- Chapter summaries with charts explaining how to put the theory into practice
- Coverage on the cost-saving aspects of this technology, including the efficient use of energy and the reduction of CO2
A practical guide for electrical engineers and technicians in utilities, this is also essential reading for maintenance engineers, designers, electrical contractors, manufacturing companies, and researchers, also those in industry and planning agencies. Insightful and clear, the book will also appeal to senior undergraduate and graduate electrical engineering students and professors.
Inhalt
Foreword and Acknowledgements xiii
1 Basics of Reactive Power 1
1.1 Chapter Overview 1
1.2 Phasors and Vector Diagrams 1
1.3 Definition of Different Types of Power 4
1.4 Definition of Power for Non-Sinusoidal Currents and Voltages 6
1.5 Equivalent Mechanical Model for Inductance 9
1.6 Equivalent Mechanical Model for Capacitance 11
1.7 Ohmic and Reactive Current 12
1.8 Summary 13
References 13
2 Reactive Power Consumers 15
2.1 Chapter Overview 15
2.2 Reactive Energy Demand 15
2.3 Simplified Model: Series Reactive Power Consumer 16
2.4 Realistic Model: Mixed Parallel and Series Reactive Power 16
2.5 Reactive Power Demand of Consumers 17
2.5.1 Asynchronous Motors 17
2.5.2 Transformers 18
2.5.3 Control Gear (Ballast) for Gas Discharge Lamps 18
2.6 Summary 21
3 Effect of Reactive Power on Electricity Generation, Transmission and Distribution 23
3.1 Chapter Overview 23
3.2 Loading of Generators and Equipment 23
3.3 Power System Losses 24
3.4 Generators 27
3.5 Voltage Drop 28
3.5.1 General 28
3.5.2 Transferable Power of Lines and Voltage Drop 29
3.5.3 Transformer Voltage Drop 32
3.6 Available Power of Transformers 34
3.7 Summary 35
4 Reactive Power in Standard Energy Contracts 37
4.1 Chapter Overview 37
4.2 Introduction 37
4.3 Reactive Energy to be Considered in Standardized Contracts of Suppliers 38
4.3.1 Pricing Dependent on Consumed Reactive Energy (kvarh) 38
4.3.2 Pricing Dependent on Consumed Apparent Energy (kVAh) 40
4.4 Importance of Reactive Power in Determining the Costs of Connection 42
4.5 Summary 42
Reference 42
5 Methods for the Determination of Reactive Power and Power Factor 43
5.1 Chapter Overview 43
5.2 Methods 43
5.2.1 Determination of Power Factor in Single-Phase Grids 43
5.2.2 Direct Indication of Power Factor by Means of Brueger's Device 44
5.2.3 Determination of Power Factor in Three-Phase System 44
5.2.4 Determination of Power Factor Using Portable Measuring Equipment 46
5.2.5 Determination of Power (Factor) via Recorded Data 48
5.2.6 Determination of Power Factor by Means of an Active Energy Meter 48
5.2.7 Determination of Power Factor by Means of an Active and Reactive Energy Meter 49
5.2.8 Determination of Power Factor via the Energy Bill 50
5.3 Summary 51
6 Improvement of Power Factor 53
6.1 Chapter Overview 53
6.2 Basics of Reactive Power Compensation 53
6.3 Limitation of Reactive Power without Phase Shifting 55
6.4 Compensation of Reactive Power by Rotational Phase-Shifting Machines 55
6.5 Compensation of Reactive Power by Means of Capacitors 56
6.6 Summary 58
7 Design, Arrangement and Power of Capacitors 61
7.1 Chapter Overview 61
7.2 Basics of Capacitors 61
7.3 Reactive Power of Capacitors 64
7.4 Different Technologies in Manufacturing Capacitors 65
7.4.1 Capacitors with Paper Insulation 65
7.4.2 Capacitors with Metallized Paper (MP Capacitor) 65
7.4.3 Capacitors with Metallized Plastic Foils 66
7.5 Arrangements and Reactive Power of Capacitors 66
7.5.1 Capacitors Connected in Parallel 67
7.5.2 Capacitors Connected in Series 67
7.5.3 Star and Delta Connection of Power Capacitors 68
7.6 Design of MV Capacitors 69
7.7 Long-Term Stability and Ageing of Capacitor Installations 69
7.7.1 General 69
7.7.2 Influence of Operating Voltage 70