This book is dedicated to Dr. Benjamin William Remondi for many reasons. The project of writing a Global Positioning System (GPS) book was con­ ceived in April 1988 at a GPS meeting in Darmstadt, Germany. Dr. Remondi discussed with me the need for an additional GPS textbook and suggested a possible joint effort. In 1989, I was willing to commit myself to such a project. Unfortunately, the timing was less than ideal for Dr. Remondi. Therefore, I decided to start the project with other coauthors. Dr. Remondi agreed and indicated his willingness to be a reviewer. I selected Dr. Herbert Lichtenegger, my colleague from the Technical University Graz, Austria, and Dr. James Collins from Rockville, Maryland, U.S.A. In my opinion, the knowledge of the three authors should cover the wide spectrum of GPS. Dr. Lichtenegger is a geodesist with broad experience in both theory and practice. He has specialized his research to geodetic astron­ omy including orbital theory and geodynamical phenomena. Since 1986, Dr. Lichtenegger's main interest is dedicated to GPS. Dr. Collins retired from the U.S. National Geodetic Survey in 1980, where he was the Deputy Director. For the past ten years, he has been deeply involved in using GPS technology with an emphasis on surveying. Dr. Collins was the founder and president of Geo/Hydro Inc. My own background is theoretically oriented. My first chief, Prof. Dr. Peter Meissl, was an excellent theoretician; and my former chief, Prof. Dr.mult. Helmut Moritz, fortunately, still is.

1 Introduction.- 1.1 The origins of surveying.- 1.2 Development of global surveying techniques.- 1.2.1 Optical global triangulation.- 1.2.2 Electromagnetic global trilateration.- 1.3 History of the Global Positioning System.- 1.3.1 Navigating with GPS.- 1.3.2 Surveying with GPS.- 2 Overview of GPS.- 2.1 Basic concept.- 2.2 Space segment.- 2.2.1 Constellation.- 2.2.2 Satellites.- 2.2.3 Operational capabilities.- 2.2.4 Denial of accuracy and access.- 2.3 Control segment.- 2.3.1 Master control station.- 2.3.2 Monitor stations.- 2.3.3 Ground control stations.- 2.4 User segment.- 2.4.1 User categories.- 2.4.2 Receiver types.- 2.4.3 Information services.- 3 Reference systems.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Coordinate systems.- 3.2.1 Definitions.- 3.2.2 Transformations.- 3.3 Time systems.- 3.3.1 Definitions.- 3.3.2 Conversions.- 3.3.3 Calendar.- 4 Satellite orbits.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Orbit description.- 4.2.1 Keplerian motion.- 4.2.2 Perturbed motion.- 4.2.3 Disturbing accelerations.- 4.3 Orbit determination.- 4.3.1 Keplerian orbit.- 4.3.2 Perturbed orbit.- 4.4 Orbit dissemination.- 4.4.1 Tracking networks.- 4.4.2 Ephemerides.- 5 Satellite signal.- 5.1 Signal structure.- 5.1.1 Physical fundamentals.- 5.1.2 Components of the signal.- 5.2 Signal processing.- 5.2.1 Receiver design.- 5.2.2 Processing techniques.- 6 Observables.- 6.1 Data acquisition.- 6.1.1 Code pseudoranges.- 6.1.2 Phase pseudoranges.- 6.1.3 Doppler data.- 6.1.4 Biases and noise.- 6.2 Data combinations.- 6.2.1 Linear phase combinations.- 6.2.2 Phase and code pseudorange combinations.- 6.3 Atmospheric effects.- 6.3.1 Phase and group velocity.- 6.3.2 Ionospheric refraction.- 6.3.3 Tropospheric refraction.- 6.4 Relativistic effects.- 6.4.1 Special relativity.- 6.4.2 General relativity.- 6.4.3 Relevant relativistic effects for GPS.- 6.5 Antenna phase center offset and variation.- 6.6 Multipath.- 7 Surveying with GPS.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.1.1 Terminology definitions.- 7.1.2 Observation technique.- 7.1.3 Impact of SA on positioning.- 7.1.4 Field equipment.- 7.2 Planning a GPS survey.- 7.2.1 General remarks.- 7.2.2 Presurvey planning.- 7.2.3 Field reconnaissance.- 7.2.4 Monumentation.- 7.2.5 Organizational design.- 7.3 Surveying procedure.- 7.3.1 Preobservation.- 7.3.2 Observation.- 7.3.3 Postobservation.- 7.3.4 Ties to control monuments.- 7.4 In situ data processing.- 7.4.1 Data transfer.- 7.4.2 Data processing.- 7.4.3 Trouble shooting and quality control.- 7.4.4 Datum transformations.- 7.4.5 Computation of plane coordinates.- 7.5 Survey report.- 8 Mathematical models for positioning.- 8.1 Point positioning.- 8.1.1 Point positioning with code ranges.- 8.1.2 Point positioning with carrier phases.- 8.1.3 Point positioning with Doppler data.- 8.2 Differential positioning.- 8.2.1 DGPS with code ranges.- 8.2.2 DGPS with carrier phases.- 8.3 Relative positioning.- 8.3.1 Phase differences.- 8.3.2 Correlations of the phase combinations.- 8.3.3 Static relative positioning.- 8.3.4 Kinematic relative positioning.- 8.3.5 Pseudokinematic relative positioning.- 9 Data processing.- 9.1 Data preprocessing.- 9.1.1 Data handling.- 9.1.2 Cycle slip detection and repair.- 9.2 Ambiguity resolution.- 9.2.1 General aspects.- 9.2.2 Basic approaches.- 9.2.3 Search techniques.- 9.3 Adjustment, filtering, and smoothing.- 9.3.1 Least squares adjustment.- 9.3.2 Kalman filtering.- 9.3.3 Smoothing.- 9.4 Adjustment of mathematical GPS models.- 9.4.1 Linearization.- 9.4.2 Linear model for point positioning with code ranges.- 9.4.3 Linear model for point positioning with carrier phases.- 9.4.4 Linear model for relative positioning.- 9.5 Network adjustment.- 9.5.1 Single baseline solution.- 9.5.2 Multipoint solution.- 9.5.3 Single baseline versus multipoint solution.- 9.5.4 Least squares adjustment of baselines.- 9.6 Dilution of Precision.- 9.7 Accuracy measures.- 9.7.1 Introduction.- 9.7.2 Chi-square distribution.- 9.7.3 Specifications.- 10 Transformation of GPS results.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Coordinate transformations.- 10.2.1 Cartesian coordinates and ellipsoidal coordinates.- 10.2.2 Global coordinates and local level coordinates.- 10.2.3 Ellipsoidal coordinates and plane coordinates.- 10.2.4 Height transformation.- 10.3 Datum transformations.- 10.3.1 Three-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.2 Two-dimensional transformation.- 10.3.3 One-dimensional transformation.- 10.4 Combining GPS and terrestrial data.- 10.4.1 Common coordinate system.- 10.4.2 Representation of measurement quantities.- 11 Software modules.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Planning.- 11.3 Data transfer.- 11.4 Data processing.- 11.5 Quality control.- 11.6 Network computations.- 11.7 Data base management.- 11.8 Utilities.- 11.9 Flexibility.- 12 Applications of GPS.- 12.1 General uses of GPS.- 12.1.1 Global uses.- 12.1.2 Regional uses.- 12.1.3 Local uses.- 12.2 Attitude determination.- 12.2.1 Theoretical considerations.- 12.2.2 Practical considerations.- 12.3 Airborne GPS for photo-control.- 12.4 Interoperability of GPS.- 12.4.1 GPS and Inertial Navigation Systems.- 12.4.2 GPS and GLONASS.- 12.4.3 GPS and other sensors.- 12.4.4 GPS and the Federal Radionavigation Plan.- 12.5 Installation of control networks.- 12.5.1 Passive control networks.- 12.5.2 Active control networks.- 13 Future of GPS.- 13.1 New application aspects.- 13.2 Improved constellation.- 13.2.1 Next generation GPS satellites.- 13.2.2 GPS augmentation.- 13.3 Hardware improvements.- 13.4 Software improvements.- 13.5 Conclusion.- References.