Students' Guide to Programming Languages introduces programming languages, emphasizing why they are needed, how they are defined and constructed, and where and how they are used. With greater access to computers at work, at school, and in the home, more and more people are now able to write programs. Only a small number of these people recognize the underlying features of the programming languages they are using, and even fewer people appreciate the features that are common to most programming languages. This book demonstrates how most programming languages are based upon the same concepts and how knowledge of these concepts can benefit the analyst and the programmer. When specifying computer solutions to real problems, the systems analyst and the programmer must be able to stand back from the particular problem in hand and visualize a solution that is independent of the constraints and limitations imposed by the programming language itself. The text helps in achieving these goals. The book as well is suitable for college students following BTEC and City and Guilds courses in computer studies and IT topics, including professional commercial and end-users.
Inhalt
Preface
1: Why Study Programming Languages?
Why Should We Study Programming Languages?
Programming Languages and the End-User
Programming Languages and the Systems Analyst
Programming Languages and the Programmer
2: What are Programming Languages?
The Development of Computers
Machine Code
Instruction Set
Why Have Only a Small Instruction Set?
Logical Operations
Comparison and Branching
Instruction Format
Assembly Code
Assembler
Data Names
Labels
Macros
Stored Programs
Subroutines
Subroutines in Practice
Another Processor
Third Generation Languages
Thinking of a Solution
Compiler
Ease of Use
Portability
Fourth Generation Languages
What is a Fourth Generation Language?
Different Instruction Sets
Other Instruction Sets
Binary Operations
Logical Operations
Data Format
Arithmetic Operations
Indexing
Immediate Instructions
Flags and Testing
Input and Output
Interpreting
Compiling, Linking and Loading
Linking and Loading
Executing
What Do We Want of a Programming Language?
3: Data and Data Types
Types of Data
Converting Binary Numbers to Decimal
Converting Decimal Numbers to Binary
Performing Binary Addition
Representing Other Data
Hexadecimal Notation
Binary / Decimal / Hexadecimal
Data Types
Character Data Type
Other Character Sets
Escape Sequences
Strings of Characters
Strings
Integer / Fixed Data Type
Negative Integer Numbers
Internal / External Format
Fractions
Very Large Numbers
Real Numbers
Floating Point Numbers
Normalized Numbers
Real Numbers in Storage
Single-Precision and Double-Precision
E-Notation
Packed Decimal
Boolean Data Type
Data Types in Programming Languages
Data Types in Basic
Data Types in Ada
Data Types in APL
Data Types in Cobol
Data Types in Fortran
Data Types in Pascal
Data Types in PL/1
Data Types in C
Type Checking
Arrays
Subscripts
Working with Arrays
Homogeneous Arrays
Arrays with Several Dimensions
Records
Enumerated Data Types
Implementing Enumerated Data Types
Pointers
Linked Lists
Set Types
4: Abstract Data Types - Adts
What Do We Mean By Data Type?
An Abstract Data Type
A Simple Abstract Data Type
ADT: Queue
Possible Implementations
Specifying an ADT
Specifying an Operation
Formal Specifications
The Specification of the ADT: Queue
Implementing an ADT
Constraints during Implementation
Information Hiding
5: Programming Structure and Structures
Structured Programming
Program Structures
Sequence
Assignment Statements
Arithmetic Calculations
Selection
Logical Expressions
Iteration
Surface Structures
Surface Structures in Structured English
Surface Structures in C
Surface Structures in Cobol
Surface Structures in Fortran
Surface Structures in Pascal
Exception Conditions
Handling Exception Conditions
Tree Diagrams
Modular Programming
Functions or Subroutines?
Internal Processing Modules
External Processing Modules
Functions
Arguments
Scope
Calling a Module
Common Data
Labeled Common
Using COMMON Data
6: Specifying a Programming Language
Specifying a Language
Recursive Rules
BNF: Backus-Naur Form
Deriving a Sentence from a Grammar
Parsing
EBNF: Extended Backus-Naur Form
More EBNF Symbols
Syntax Diagrams
Recursion in Syntax Diagrams
Context-Free Grammars
Semantics
Specification by Narrative Description
Specification by Example
Specification by Substitution
7: Specifying Functions
Specifying Functions
Sets
Is a Member of
Operations on Sets
Union
Difference
Intersection
Writing the Members of a Set
Primitive Types in Formal Specifications
The Input Set and the Domain
Mapping
The Output Set and the Range
Describing a Function
Partial Functions and Total Functions
Functions with Other Types of Data
More than One Input Value
Other Data Types
Formal Descriptions
Recursion
8: Compilers and Compiling
A Compiler
Lexical Analysis
The Symbol Table
Constants and Variables
Arrays and the Symbol Table
Syntax Analysis
Syntax Checking in General
Syntax Checking in Action
Syntax Errors
Arithmetic Expressions
Reverse Polish Notation
An Algorithm to Convert in-Fix Expressions to Post-Fix
Evaluating a Post-Fix Expression
An Algorithm to Evaluate Post-Fix Expressions
Producing the Object Code
Labels
Scope-Checking
Optimization
9: Applying Languages: Commercial
Procedural or Non-Procedural Languages?
Even Before Software
Report Program Generators
Program Generators
Partial Action of a Program Generator
Databases
Database Languages
Inquiry Languages
SQL
Sorting
Selecting Specific Items
Dbase
Sorting in Dbase
Processing in Dbase
QBE; Query by Example
Processing in QBE
Data Description Language
Fourth Generation Languages
What is a Fourth Generation Language?
The Pros and Cons of Using 4gls
Prototyping
4GL / Inquiry Language / Data Manipulation Language
Looking At A 4GL
Derived Fields
Using the Data Dictionary
SB + and the Users
10: Applying Languages: Specialist
Concurrent Processing
Synchronization
Condition Synchronization
Mutual Exclu…