This first hands-on guide to ISO-compliant Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) makes this powerful tool immediately accessible to both professionals and students. Following a general introduction on the philosophy and purpose of LCA, the reader is taken through all the stages of a complete LCA analysis, with each step exemplified by real-life data from a major LCA project on beverage packaging. Measures as carbon and water footprint, based on the most recent international standards and definitions, are addressed.
Written by two pioneers of LCA, this practical volume is targeted at first-time LCA users but equally makes a much-valued reference for more experienced practitioners.
From the content:
* Goal and Scope Definition
* Life Cycle Inventory Analysis
* Life Cycle Impact Assessment
* Interpretation, Reporting and Critical Review
* From LCA to Sustainability Assessment
and more.
Autorentext
Walter Klopffer is consultant for life cycle and chemicals assessment in Frankfurt (Germany). After his studies of chemistry at the University of Graz (Austria) he was working for nearly thirty years at the Battelle Institute e.V. in Frankfurt, followed by a position at C.A.U. Ltd. in Dreieich (Germany). Since 1975 he has also been Professor of Physical Chemistry at the University of Mainz. Professor Klopffer is the founding editor and current editor-in-chief of 'The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment'.
Birgit Grahl studied chemistry at the University of Hamburg (Germany). She then headed the chemistry department of the Oko-Institut e.V. Freiburg (Germany), followed by several years as co-owner and director of a commercial laboratory (Germany) and afterwards working as a freelance consultant in the field of industrial ecology. Dr. Grahl was involved in the development of the ISO 14040 series, is a member of the editorial board of 'The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment' and professor at the University of Applied Sciences in Lubeck (Germany).
Inhalt
Preface xi
1 Introduction 1
1.1 What Is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)? 1
1.1.1 Definition and Limitations 1
1.1.2 Life Cycle of a Product 2
1.1.3 Functional Unit 3
1.1.4 LCA as System Analysis 4
1.1.5 LCA and Operational InputOutput Analysis (Gate-to-Gate) 5
1.2 History 6
1.2.1 Early LCAs 6
1.2.2 Environmental Policy Background 7
1.2.3 Energy Analysis 8
1.2.4 The 1980s 8
1.2.5 The Role of SETAC 9
1.3 The Structure of LCA 10
1.3.1 Structure According to SETAC 10
1.3.2 Structure of LCA According to ISO 11
1.3.3 Valuation a Separate Phase? 12
1.4 Standardisation of LCA 14
1.4.1 Process of Formation 14
1.4.2 Status Quo 16
1.5 Literature and Information on LCA 17
References 18
2 Goal and Scope Definition 27
2.1 Goal Definition 27
2.2 Scope 28
2.2.1 Product System 28
2.2.2 Technical System Boundary 29
2.2.2.1 Cut-Off Criteria 29
2.2.2.2 Demarcation towards System Surrounding 32
2.2.3 Geographical System Boundary 34
2.2.4 Temporal System Boundary/Time Horizon 35
2.2.5 The Functional Unit 37
2.2.5.1 Definition of a Suitable Functional Unit and a Reference Flow 37
2.2.5.2 Impairment Factors on Comparison Negligible Added Value 40
2.2.5.3 Procedure for Non-negligible Added Value 41
2.2.6 Data Availability and Depth of Study 43
2.2.7 Further Definitions 44
2.2.7.1 Type of Impact Assessment 44
2.2.7.2 Valuation (Weighting), Assumptions and Notions of Value 45
2.2.7.3 Critical Review 46
2.2.8 Further Definitions to the Scope 47
2.3 Illustration of the Component 'Definition of Goal and Scope' Using an Example of Practice 47
2.3.1 Goal Definition 48
2.3.2 Scope 50
2.3.2.1 Product Systems 50
2.3.2.2 Technical System Boundaries and Cut-Off Criteria 53
2.3.2.3 Demarcation to the System Surrounding 53
2.3.2.4 Geographical System Boundary 54
2.3.2.5 Temporal System Boundary 55
2.3.2.6 Functional Unit and Reference Flow 55
2.3.2.7 Data Availability and Depth of Study 55
2.3.2.8 Type of Life Cycle Impact Assessment 56
2.3.2.9 Methods of Interpretation 57
2.3.2.10 Critical Review 57
References 57
3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis 63
3.1 Basics 63
3.1.1 Scientific Principles 63
3.1.2 Literature on Fundamentals of the Inventory Analysis 64
3.1.3 The Unit Process as the Smallest Cell of LCI 65
3.1.3.1 Integration into the System Flow Chart 65
3.1.3.2 Balancing 67
3.1.4 Flow Charts 69
3.1.5 Reference Values 72
3.2 Energy Analysis 74
3.2.1 Introduction 74
3.2.2 Cumulative Energy Demand (CED) 77
3.2.2.1 Definition 77
3.2.2.2 Partial Amounts 77
3.2.2.3 Balancing Boundaries 79
3.2.3 Energy Content of Inflammable Materials 81
3.2.3.1 Fossil Fuels 81
3.2.3.2 Quantification 81
3.2.3.3 Infrastructure 84
3.2.4 Supply of Electricity 85
3.2.5 Transports 88
3.3 Allocation 92
3.3.1 Fundamentals of Allocation 92
3.3.2 Allocation by the Example of Co-production 92
3.3.2.1 Definition of Co-production 92
3.3.2.2 'Fair' Allocation? 93
3.3.2.3 Proposed Solutions 98
3.3.2.4 Further Approaches to the Allocation of Co-products 101
3.3.2.5 System Expansion 102
3.3.3 Allocation and Recycling in Closed-Loops and Re-use 105
3.3.4 Allocation and Recycling for Open-Loop Recycling (COLR) 107
3.3.4.1 Definition of the Problem 107
3.3.4.2 Allocation per Equal Parts 109
3.3.4.3 Cut-off Rule 111
3.3.4.4 Overall Load to S...